Protectorate of Cromwell

The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell

1653-8

Oliver Cromwell

	Between 1653 and 1658, England was dominated by Oliver Cromwell (1599-1650). Born in East Anglia, the son a minor gentleman, his early life was uneventful. He was an undistinguished Member in the Parliament of 1628 to 1629, and only rose to prominence after 1642 when his talent for training and leading cavalry became apparent.
	Oliver Cromwell was no revolutionary - he ruthlessly suppressed the Levellers when their plans for social and political change became too radical.
	However, Cromwell was no ordinary conservative English gentleman either: his profound religious convictions and commitment to religious toleration set him apart from the social elite. Furthermore, Cromwell identified with the army he had helped to create and lead, and firmly defended its interests from all attempts to disband it.

The Nominated ("Barebones") Parliament

	After the dissolution of the Rump Parliament, Cromwell and the Army Council asked for nominees from the godly congregations of England to sit in a new interim assembly.
	Most of the nominated members came from the traditional social elite - with the notable exception of Praisegod Barebone, a radical Baptist leather-maker, whose name was attached to the Parliament by its enemies.
	When the Parliament met in July 1653, the Members with extreme religious views proceeded to demand reforms of the common law and of the church (especially its finance by tithes) that the more moderate members regarded as a dangerous attack on property.
	So frightened were the moderate majority by these radical schemes that in December 1653 they voted to dissolve the assembly and return power to Cromwell.

The Instrument of Government

	The army Council thought again and drew up a new constitution called the Instrument of Government. It named Cromwell Lord Protector - the title last held by Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset when he governed during Edward VI's minority.
	Cromwell was not actually King of England, but he acted in many ways like one.

Coins were minted bearing Cromwell's image; he held a court and received foreign ambassadors.

Cromwell also began to act like a king in the way he treated Parliament. When his first Parliament assembled in September 1654, its first action was to debate whether Cromwell should have the power that the Instrument of Government had given him. In response Cromwell summoned a troop of soldiers who refused to admit any MP who denied Cromwell's power.

The Members heatedly debated every clause in the Instrument of Government, until Cromwell lost patience in January 1655 and dissolved the House.

A minor Royalist rebellion in March 1655 - Penruddock's rising - was easily suppressed.

The few dozen rebels seized Salisbury in the name of Charles II, but rapidly realizing that their cause was attracting no support went west to Sherborne and then to Tiverton. They hoped that Cornwall would show more enthusiasm for Royalism, or -if not - that they might be able to flee to the Continent. The Protectorate's troops caught the rebels at South Molton.
The uprising demonstrated how little eagerness existed for replacing Cromwell with Charles.

The Major-Generals

Penruddock's rising, and financial problems resulting from the first Protectorate Parliament's failure to vote sufficient funds, led Cromwell to try a new form of rule.

Militias were created throughout England and placed under the control of Cromwell's Major-Generals. These Major-Generals were given authority to suppress rebellion, enforce law, supervise local JPs (especially in their collection of taxes) and uphold morality.

	Cromwell supplemented his government's income by a 10% income tax on Royalists (known as the decimation tax). In November 1655, Cromwell forbad the use of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. (Loyalty to the traditional services of the Church of England was closely linked to Royalism).
	The rule of the Major Generals soon became very unpopular with the political nation: not only did local magistrates resent direct and often tactless supervision, but also the restrictions placed on social occasions (such as race meetings) to prevent sedition and immorality.

The Second Protectorate Parliament

	Still short of funds, Oliver Cromwell called another Parliament: which began September 1656.
	Cromwell promptly refused to allow anyone to sit who was known to oppose his rule (c. 100 MPs) and this led another 41 Members to quit as a demonstration of outrage.
	In 1657, the House condemned a Messianic Quaker - James Naylor - for blasphemy and severely punished him. Cromwell did not try to save Naylor, but he was worried that parliament might later persecute other less radical people.
	This Parliament recommmended a new constitution - the Humble Petition and Advice. It established a second chamber in parliament - an Upper House of Cromwell's appointees that could act as a check on the Lower House. This House served many of the functions of the old House of Lords.
	The Humble Petition and Advice also moved back toward the traditional form of government in allowing Cromwell to appoint his successor. But despite the gradual return to traditional forms, Cromwell's power was ultimately dependent on the large - and very expensive - army.

Cromwell's Military Successes

The upkeep of the army was expensive, but it did enable Cromwell to pursue an active foreign policy in support of English and Protestant interests.

Cromwell first attempted to extend English power in the West Indies. An expedition (poorly manned and equipped) sent in 1655 to seize Hispaniola failed miserably.

	The expedition withdrew to Jamaica and seized control from its 1,500 Spanish inhabitants. (Jamaica remained under English control until 1962).
	In the Mediterranean, a fleet commanded by Admiral Robert Blake seized French vessels. He also attacked Porto Farina as a retaliation against its ruler, the Dey of Tunis' action in enslaving English sailors.
	Blake blockaded the Spanish Fleet in Cadiz: this allowed other English ships to seize two Spanish treasure ships in September 1656: 38 wagon-loads of silver were brought back to England. In April 1657, Blake next attacked the Spanish Fleet in Santa Cruz (in Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands) - destroying virtually all the Spanish ships as they lay at anchor, without himself suffering any real loss.
	Cromwell also pursued his war against the Spanish on land. He allied with France and defeated the Spanish army at the Battle of the Dunes (June 1658). In the same campaign, the English also captured Dunkirk.

The Battle of the Dunes (14 June 1658)
	The Battle involved forces from many countries. British troops fought on both sides - for Cromwell with the French and for Charles with the Spanish. The Spanish army on its way to relieve the besieged garrison at Dunkirk camped for the night near the French forces. The French General Turenne decided to attack first thing in the morning.
The Spanish infantry were strongly placed on a high point amongst the hilly sand dunes. The Spanish cavalry sheltered on the lower ground behind. The French troops moved steadily forward but were outpaced by the English who rushed ahead to seize the key sand hill. The French cavalry mounted a dashing attack along the seashore and routed the Spanish; the weak German and Walloon infantry collapsed before the more experienced French and Swiss infantry who then turned on the Spanish. By noon the battle was over - the Spanish lost 1,000 killed and 4,000 prisoners.

The Death of Cromwell
Cromwell's death mask	Many people thought Cromwell a usurper, but during the later 1650s increasing numbers were apparently growing reconciled to his rule. Cromwell might perhaps have established a stable regime had he not died (supposedly of grief at his favorite daughter's death) in September 1658