The first Civil War, 1642-46

The first Civil War

1642-6

1. Royalist successes 1642-43

In the Spring and Summer of 1642, Charles based himself first at York and then at Oxford. He began to raise an army and was joined by many members of the House of Commons and most of the Lords.

Absent at House of Lords' roll call
9 February 1642: 67	15 April 1642: 82

(There were 124 lay peers when the Long Parliament first sat).

The King dominated the North and West of England, Parliament the South and East.
(A number of towns in Royalist areas supported Parliament; and some gentlemen in Parliamentary areas - particularly Kent - sympathized with the King).
Throughout the country there were "neutralists" who wanted to prevent conflict in their own neighborhoods (NIMBY).

The King had a number of extremely wealthy supporters:
William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle (who was rewarded by being made a Marquess in 1643 and a Duke in 1665) spent about £700,000 in the King's service. The army of "Whitecoats" he financed held the North for Charles.
Henry Somerset, 5th Earl and 1st Marquess of Worcester spent about £900,000 on the Royalist cause. (His home, Raglan Castle, one of the great medieval castles of Wales was finally taken after a Parliamentary siege in 1646).

Parliament's great advantage lay in its control of London and South-East England - by far the country's richest region.

Charles' forces were initially better led. His nephew, Prince Rupert of the Rhine brought the experience of soldiering in the Thirty Years war to the English theatre.

Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, was the first leader of Parliament's army.
He had commanded a regiment in the Netherlands but he proved a lackluster commander.

Essex' cousin, Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick (another Providence Island Company shareholder) took decisive action to seize for Parliament control of the navy that Charles had so well-equipped on the proceeds from Ship Money.

Both sides included hardliners, who simply wanted to defeat their enemies, especially, George, Lord Digby on the Royalist side. Sir Henry Vane, Sir Henry Marten, Oliver Cromwell, and Lord Saye and Sele were the most outspoken on the parliamentarian side.
There were also many moderates, eager to reach some compromise: Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland and Edward Hyde led the Royalist moderates. Denzil Holles, supported by Bulstrode Whitelock, John Maynard and John Glynne headed the "peace party" in the House of Commons.
In Parliament, a "middle group" under Oliver St. John and John Pym maintained a balance of sorts, but after Pym's death in December 1643, it became more difficult to paper over Parliament's internal divisions.

The indecisive Battle of Edgehill had left the road to London open, but Charles procrastinated and by the time he marched on the City, its defences had been completed.
Charles never had another opportunity to seize the capitol.

Sir Ralph Hopton (1598-1652) like Prince Rupert had military experience in the Thirty Years War. He commanded Charles' forces in the West of England, and in 1643 defeated the parliamentarians at Bradock Down (19 January) and Stratton (16 May), Cornwall.

	In 1643, Prince Rupert gained two important victories in the Battle of Roundway Down (July 10-13) and in seizing Bristol (July 15-26).
	Royalist Forces under the Earl of Newcastle defeated Thomas Fairfax's Parliamentarians at Adwalton Moor (30 June 1643) and so gained control of all the North of England except for Hull.
	These victories in the North and West enabled Charles to plan for an attack on London, but before he could go ahead, the Royalists had to ensure the safety of Oxford by defeating the small Parliamentary force in Gloucester. 10 August 1643, Charles laid siege to Gloucester. Parliament decided that it could not afford to loose this town and sent an army from London to relieve the City.
	The Royalist army intercepted the relievers under Essex at the First Battle of Newbury (20 September 1643) and forced them to fight. The Parliamentarian forces inflicted heavy casualties on the Royalists, who ran out of ammunition, and Essex was able to retreat to London. Parliament saw this as their first real victory.
	Charles might have taken advantage of his stronger position in 1643 to negotiate a favorable peace, but he still hoped to defeat the rebellion entirely.

2. The Solemn League and Covenant.

"That we shall sincerely, really and constantly, through the grace of God, endeavor in our several places and callings, the preservation of the reformed religion in the Church of Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline and government, against our common enemies; the reformation of religion in the kingdoms of England and Ireland, in doctrine, worship, discipline and government, according to the Word of God, and the example of the best reformed Churches; …"

The Solemn League and Covenant.

Scotland was deeply concerned by the Royalist victories of early 1643, since its Presbyterian leaders feared that if Charles subdued Parliament's opposition, he would then use his army to reduce the Scots to obedience.

Parliament was eager for help from a Scots army, so their commissioners agreed to the Solemn League and Covenant. The Scots believed that this bound the English to establish Presbyterian government in the English Church.
(The treaty actually stated that England would model its church on the "best-reformed" churches: - The Scots took for granted that this meant their church; the English did not. Sir Henry Vane also added the phrase "and according to the word of God" to give the English more wiggle room).

Parliament called the Westminster Assembly to advise it on the government and doctrine of the Church of England. It convened 1 July 1643 and was made up largely of ministers from Parliamentary-controlled areas, and a few laymen appointed by Parliament. A delegation of Scottish Commissioners also attended the proceedings.

The House of Commons and the Westminster Assembly took the Solemn League and Covenant, 25 September 1643. England then sent Scotland the money to raise and equip an army.

19 January 1644, a Scottish army of 20,000 commanded by Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven (1580-1661) crossed the border.
Leslie had served for many years in the Thirty Years War as a commander in the Swedish army.

3. The Eastern Association

The counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire joined their military resources together in the Eastern Association.

The commander of the Eastern Association army was Edward Montagu, Earl of Manchester (1602-71).
A friend of Charles in his youth, he was the only peer that Charles tried to arrest along with the Five Members.
Montagu had fought at Edgehill and was a competent organizer and leader.

The Eastern Association's most inspiring leader was Manchester's deputy, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). As Member of Parliament for Huntingdon, Cromwell firmly adhered to those who wanted to curb Charles I's powers strictly. He was a committed puritan in religion, and promoted men on the basis of their commitment to the cause of defeating King and Bishops.

Charles I attempted to counter Parliament's Scottish alliance, by himself making peace with Irish. This allowed him to transfer forces from Ireland to England, but it thoroughly alarmed the many moderates who feared the Irish Catholics.

The Scottish invasion forced Newcastle's army to halt at York, and protect its rear. Simultaneously, the Eastern Association army marched north in Yorkshire. They met at the Battle of Marston Moor (2 July 1644).
The Royalists under Prince Rupert and the Marquess of Newcastle were completely defeated by combined armies of Scotland and Parliament.

York surrendered, 16 July 1644, and all of the North fell under Parliament's control.

Decisive victory over the King was prevented by the Earl of Manchester's irresolute inactivity and by Royalist successes against Essex in the South-West.

"If we beat the king ninety-nine times he is king still, and so will his posterity be after him; but if the king beat us once, we shall be all hanged, and our posterity be made slaves."

Edward Montagu.

4. The Self-Denying Ordinance

Angered by the half-heartedness of the military command, Oliver Cromwell and other Members of Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance (19 December 1644). This required all Members of Parliament to resign their commissions in the armed forces. A slightly revised version of the Self-Denying Ordinance (3 April 1645) allowed Members of Parliament to be re-appointed to military command.
Oliver Cromwell resigned his place as did Essex and Manchester, but he was re-appointed whereas they were not.

Parliament then reorganized the army under a single chain of command, 19 February 1645. This New Model Army was not only staffed by zealous officers, it was also regularly paid - an innovation that increased its fighting efficiency.

	Sir Thomas Fairfax (1612-71) was a Yorkshireman, known as "Black Tom" on account of his swarthy complexion. He fought with the Dutch in the Thirty Years War. Parliament appointed him Lord General of the New Model Army, with Cromwell as his second-in-command.
	Another key commander was Henry Ireton (1611-1651). Ireton had married Oliver Cromwell's eldest daughter. He commanded one wing of the Parliamentary army at the Battle of Naseby.

At the Battle of Naseby, 14 June 1645 , the New Model Army crushed the outnumbered and outmaneuvered Royalist army.

5. The defeat of Charles I

Even after the defeat at Naseby, Charles I hoped to recover his position.

The king placed his hopes in James Graham, 5th Earl of Montrose (1612-50). Montrose had first fought with the covenanters against Charles, but then changed sides and was created 1st Marquess of Montrose in 1644 and made lieutenant general of Charles' forces in Scotland - mostly highlanders, with some Irish auxiliaries.
Initially, Montrose was victorious in a series of battles against the covenanters. But when he marched on the Lowlands, hoping they would rise in favor of the king, most of the highlanders deserted him.
Montrose, with a small force of Irish at Philiphaugh (13 September 1645) was attacked by Leslie, whose forces outnumbered them three to one. Montrose fled and the Irish surrendered on promise of their lives. This promise Leslie (egged on by Presbyterian ministers) soon broke - killing not only most of the Irish soldiers, but many of their camp followers, women and children.

In England, Parliament's armies mopped up the remaining Royalist strongholds.
Sherborne Castle in Dorset was captured, 14 August 1645.
Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol, 10 September 1645.
Cromwell took Devizes ,Winchester, and finally Basing House, 14 October 1645.

Charles I marched his army North, but so many soldiers deserted that by the time he reached Newark, it was apparent that his cause was lost.
5 May 1646, Charles surrendered to the Scots, hoping that he could negotiate a better deal with them than with Parliament.